Chapter 3 Agriculture

Observing a farmer tilling land and preparing it for growing wheat demonstrates a fundamental human activity related to producing food. The process of transforming a plant (wheat) into finished products like bread and biscuits involves a series of economic activities.

Economic activities can be broadly categorised into three types:

1. **Primary Activities:** These involve the direct **extraction and production of natural resources**. Examples include **agriculture**, fishing, and gathering.

2. **Secondary Activities:** These are concerned with the **processing of natural resources** obtained from primary activities. Examples include manufacturing goods, such as the production of steel, baking bread from flour, or weaving cloth.

3. **Tertiary Activities:** These activities provide **support and services** to the primary and secondary sectors. They do not produce goods directly but facilitate their production, distribution, and sale. Examples include transport, trade, banking, insurance, and advertising.

**Agriculture** is classified as a **primary activity**. It encompasses various practices including growing crops, fruits, vegetables, and flowers, as well as rearing livestock (animals). Globally, a significant portion of the population is engaged in agricultural activities. For instance, in India, approximately two-thirds of the population still relies on agriculture for their livelihood.

Successful agricultural activity is heavily dependent on favourable environmental conditions, particularly the **topography of the soil** and the prevailing **climate**. The land specifically used for growing crops is known as **arable land**.

As indicated in the map showing the world distribution of arable land (Fig. 3.1), agricultural activity is concentrated in regions with suitable factors for crop cultivation. This highlights the importance of geographical and climatic conditions for farming.

Fig. 3.1 is a map illustrating where arable land is found globally. It shows that fertile, farmable land is not evenly distributed but concentrated in specific regions, often corresponding to areas with suitable climates and fertile soils, explaining the concentration of agricultural activity in those areas.

The term 'agriculture' originates from Latin words: 'ager' or 'agri', meaning **soil**, and 'culture', meaning **cultivation**. Hence, agriculture fundamentally refers to the cultivation of soil.

Related terms include:

• **Viticulture:** The cultivation of grapes, often for wine production.
• **Horticulture:** The commercial growing of vegetables, flowers, and fruits.
• **Sericulture:** The commercial rearing of silkworms to produce silk; can provide supplementary income for farmers.
• **Pisciculture:** The breeding of fish in specially constructed tanks or ponds.

**Agriculture**, also known as farming, is defined as the science and art of cultivating the soil, raising crops, and rearing livestock.

Farm System

Agriculture or farming can be viewed as a complex **system**. Like any system, it involves inputs, processes, and outputs.

The key components of a farm system are:

1. **Inputs:** These are the resources and materials that go into the farming process. Important inputs include **seeds, fertilisers, machinery, and labour**. Inputs can be broadly categorised into Physical Inputs (like sunshine, temperature, soil, rainfall, slope) and Human Inputs (like storage facilities, labour, machinery, chemicals).

2. **Processes:** These are the actual operations and activities carried out on the farm. Examples of processes include **ploughing, sowing, irrigation, weeding, and harvesting**.

3. **Outputs:** These are the products or results obtained from the farming system. Outputs from a farm can include **crops** (like grains, fruits, vegetables), **wool** (from sheep), **dairy products** (milk, cheese, butter), and **poultry products** (eggs, chicken).

Fig. 3.2 provides a simplified diagram of an arable farm system, showing how inputs are transformed through various farming processes to produce outputs, like crops, highlighting the systemic nature of agriculture.

Fig. 3.3 further details the inputs in a farm system, differentiating between Physical Inputs (climatic and geographical factors like sunshine, temperature, soil type, slope, rainfall) and Human Inputs (resources and tools provided by humans like machinery, seeds, chemicals, labour, and storage facilities), showing how both are essential for farming.

Types Of Farming

Farming practices vary significantly across the world, influenced by local geographical conditions, the demand for produce, the availability of labour, and the level of technology used. Based on these factors, farming is broadly classified into two main types:

1. **Subsistence Farming**

2. **Commercial Farming**

Subsistence Farming

**Subsistence farming** is agricultural practice primarily aimed at meeting the food and other essential needs of the **farmer's family**. The produce is mainly for self-consumption rather than sale in the market.

Key characteristics of traditional subsistence farming:

• Use of **low levels of technology**.
• Reliance on **household labour**.
• Production of a **small output**.

Subsistence farming can be further divided into:

a) **Intensive Subsistence Agriculture:**

• The farmer cultivates a **small plot of land**.
• Uses **simple tools** and requires a **large amount of labour** (often family members).
• Climatic conditions, particularly a large number of sunny days and fertile soil, often allow for growing **more than one crop annually** on the same plot.
• **Rice** is typically the main crop, but other crops like wheat, maize, pulses, and oilseeds are also grown.
• This type of farming is common in densely populated areas of the **monsoon regions of South, Southeast, and East Asia**.

b) **Primitive Subsistence Agriculture:** This category includes two distinct practices:

• **Shifting Cultivation:** Practised in thickly forested regions such as the Amazon basin, tropical Africa, parts of Southeast Asia, and Northeast India, areas characterised by high rainfall and rapid vegetation regrowth.
  • A plot of land is cleared by felling trees and burning the vegetation.
  • The ashes are mixed with the soil to add nutrients.
  • Crops like maize, yam, potatoes, and cassava are grown for a few years.
  • Once the soil loses its fertility, the cultivators **abandon the plot** and move to clear a new area.
  • This practice is also known as "**slash and burn**" agriculture.
  • Disadvantages include deforestation, soil erosion, and environmental degradation due to repeated clearing and burning.
• **Nomadic Herding:** Practised in arid and semi-arid regions like the Sahara Desert, Central Asia, and parts of India (Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir).
  • **Herdsmen** move from place to place with their animals (like sheep, camels, yaks, and goats) along defined routes in search of **fodder and water**.
  • This movement pattern is dictated by climatic conditions and the availability of resources in different terrains.
  • The animals provide products like **milk, meat, wool, hides**, and other items for the herders and their families' sustenance.

Fig. 3.4 shows Nomadic Herders with their camels. This image illustrates the practice of Nomadic Herding, a type of primitive subsistence agriculture where communities move with their livestock across vast areas in search of pasture and water, adapting to challenging environmental conditions.

Commercial Farming

**Commercial farming** is agricultural practice where crops are grown and animals are reared specifically for **sale in the market**. The primary goal is profit rather than just meeting family needs.

Key characteristics of commercial farming:

• Cultivated areas are typically **large**.
• A considerable amount of **capital is invested**.
• Most farming tasks are performed using **machines**, requiring less manual labour per unit of land compared to subsistence farming.

Commercial farming includes several types:

• **Commercial Grain Farming:** Crops, primarily grains, are grown specifically for commercial sale. **Wheat and maize** are common examples. Major regions for this practice are the temperate grasslands of North America, Europe, and Asia. These areas are often sparsely populated with very large farms. Severe winters often limit the growing season, allowing for only a **single crop** to be grown annually.
• **Mixed Farming:** The land is used for a combination of activities: **growing food and fodder crops** AND **rearing livestock**. This integrated approach is practised in Europe, eastern USA, Argentina, southeast Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.
• **Plantation Agriculture:** A distinct type of commercial farming focused on cultivating a **single crop** on a large estate or plantation. Common plantation crops include **tea, coffee, sugarcane, cashew, rubber, banana, and cotton**.
  • Plantations require significant amounts of **labour and capital**.
  • The harvested produce is often processed on the farm itself or in nearby factories.
  • A well-developed **transport network** is crucial for plantations to move raw materials and finished products to markets.
  • Major plantations are located in the **tropical regions** of the world (e.g., rubber in Malaysia, coffee in Brazil, tea in India and Sri Lanka).

Fig. 3.5 shows a Sugarcane plantation. Plantations are large-scale commercial farms dedicated to growing a single crop, requiring significant investment and labour, characteristic of commercial agriculture in tropical regions.

Fig. 3.6 shows a Banana Plantation. Like sugarcane plantations, banana plantations exemplify single-crop commercial farming requiring specific tropical climates and efficient transport links to markets.

**Organic Farming** is an interesting method that uses organic manure and natural pesticides instead of chemical inputs. Genetic modification is also avoided. This approach focuses on sustainable and environmentally friendly practices.

Major Crops

A wide variety of crops are cultivated globally to meet the increasing demands of the growing population and to provide raw materials for agro-based industries. The major crops can be categorised into food crops, fibre crops, and beverage crops.

**Major Food Crops:**

• **Rice:** The most important food crop globally and the staple diet in tropical and sub-tropical regions.
  • Requires high temperature, high humidity, and high rainfall.
  • Grows best in fertile alluvial clayey soil that can retain water.
  • Leading producers include China, India, Japan, Sri Lanka, and Egypt.
  • In areas with favourable conditions (like West Bengal and Bangladesh), two or three rice crops can be grown in a year.
• **Wheat:** A major food crop requiring specific climatic conditions.
  • Needs moderate temperature and rainfall during the growing period.
  • Requires bright sunshine at the time of harvest.
  • Thrives best in well-drained loamy soil.
  • Widely grown in the USA, Canada, Argentina, Russia, Ukraine, Australia, and India.
  • In India, wheat is typically grown during the winter season.
• **Millets:** Known as coarse grains, they are hardy crops.
  • Can be grown on less fertile and sandy soils.
  • Require low rainfall and high to moderate temperature, with adequate rainfall.
  • Important millets grown in India include Jowar, Bajra, and Ragi.
  • Other producing countries include Nigeria, China, and Niger.
• **Maize:** Also known as corn, it is cultivated in various parts of the world.
  • Requires moderate temperature, rainfall, and abundant sunshine.
  • Needs well-drained fertile soils for optimal growth.
  • Major producers include North America, Brazil, China, Russia, Canada, India, and Mexico.

**Major Fibre Crops:**

• **Cotton:** A vital raw material for the cotton textile industry.
  • Requires high temperature, light rainfall, and approximately 210 frost-free days for growth.
  • Needs bright sunshine for optimal growth.
  • Grows best on black and alluvial soils.
  • Leading producers are China, USA, India, Pakistan, Brazil, and Egypt.
• **Jute:** Known as the 'Golden Fibre'.
  • Grows well on alluvial soil.
  • Requires high temperature, heavy rainfall, and a humid climate.
  • Cultivated in tropical areas.
  • India and Bangladesh are the leading producers.

**Important Beverage Crops:**

• **Coffee:** A popular beverage crop.
  • Requires warm and wet climate.
  • Grows best in well-drained loamy soil.
  • Hill slopes are more suitable for its cultivation.
  • Brazil is the leading producer, followed by Colombia and India.
  • The interesting story of coffee's discovery dates back to an Arab goat-herder in AD 850 who noticed his goats' behaviour after eating berries from a bush and tried them himself, experiencing exhilaration.
• **Tea:** Another widely consumed beverage crop, grown on plantations.
  • Requires a cool climate.
  • Needs high, well-distributed rainfall throughout the year for the growth of its tender leaves.
  • Requires well-drained loamy soils.
  • Gentle slopes are ideal for tea plantations.
  • Requires a large number of labourers for plucking the leaves.
  • Kenya, India, China, and Sri Lanka are known for producing high-quality tea.

Fig. 3.7 shows Rice Cultivation. This image likely depicts flooded fields, characteristic of wet rice cultivation, the method used for growing rice, a staple food crop requiring specific conditions of high temperature, humidity, and water availability.

Fig. 3.8 shows Wheat Harvesting. This image illustrates the process of gathering the mature wheat crop, which thrives in moderate temperatures and requires sunshine during this final stage.

Fig. 3.9 shows Bajra Cultivation. Bajra, a type of millet, is a hardy grain that can grow in less fertile, sandy soils and requires low to moderate rainfall, making it suitable for drier regions.

Fig. 3.10 shows Maize Cultivation. Maize (corn) is grown in diverse climates and requires moderate temperature, rainfall, and plenty of sunshine for good growth.

Fig. 3.11 shows Cotton Cultivation. Cotton, a key fibre crop, needs specific warm climatic conditions, including many frost-free days and ample sunshine, and grows well in black or alluvial soils.

Fig. 3.12 shows a Coffee Plantation. Coffee, a major beverage crop, is typically grown on well-drained loamy soils, often on hill slopes, requiring a warm and wet climate.

Fig. 3.13 shows a Tea Plantation. Tea, another important beverage crop, thrives in cool climates with high, evenly distributed rainfall and requires gentle slopes and well-drained loamy soil. The image likely shows the characteristic rows of tea bushes cultivated on hillsides.

Agricultural Development

**Agricultural Development** refers to the systematic efforts undertaken to **increase farm production**. The primary motivation for this development is to meet the ever-growing demand for food and agricultural products from an increasing global population. Achieving agricultural development involves various strategies:

• Increasing the **cropped area** (bringing more land under cultivation).
• Increasing the **number of crops grown** per year on the same land (e.g., multiple cropping).
• Improving **irrigation facilities** to provide water to crops more reliably.
• Increased use of **fertilisers** to improve soil fertility.
• Using **High Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds** that produce more output.
• Introducing **mechanisation of agriculture** (using modern machinery like tractors, harvesters) to make farming processes more efficient.

The ultimate goal of agricultural development is to enhance **food security**, which means ensuring that all people, at all times, have access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs for a healthy and active life.

Agricultural development has occurred at different rates and in different ways across the world. In **developing countries** with large populations, **intensive agriculture** is often practised on small landholdings, primarily for **subsistence** (feeding the family). In contrast, **developed countries** like the USA, Canada, and Australia often have much **larger landholdings** that are better suited for **commercial agriculture**, focusing on large-scale production for the market.

Comparing farms in India (a developing country) and the USA (a developed country) illustrates these differences:

A Farm in India (Case study of Munna Lal in Adilabad village, Ghazipur, UP):

• Typically a **small farmer** with limited land (e.g., 1.5 hectares).
• Lives in the main village, not necessarily on the farm.
• Relies on fertile land and grows **at least two crops** annually (e.g., wheat/rice and pulses).
• Purchases **HYV seeds** periodically.
• Seeks advice from friends, elders, and government agricultural officers.
• May use a **tractor on rent** for ploughing, while others still use bullocks (traditional methods).
• Rents tubewell irrigation facilities.
• May also raise **livestock** (buffaloes, hens) and sell products locally (e.g., milk to a cooperative).
• Family members often provide labour for farm activities.
• May take **credit** (loans) from banks or cooperatives for inputs.
• Sells produce in the local market (mandi).
• Often faces challenges with **storage facilities**, forcing early sales even when market prices are low.

Fig. 3.15 shows an Agricultural Field in India, depicting a farmer and bullocks used for cultivation, representing traditional farming practices prevalent in many parts of India, often associated with smaller landholdings and subsistence farming.

Fig. 3.14 shows Farmers ploughing a field. The image likely depicts manual or animal-powered ploughing, a common practice in Indian agriculture, contrasting with the high level of mechanisation in developed country farms.

A Farm in the USA (Case study of Joe Horan in Iowa):

• Typically has a much **larger farm size** (e.g., average 250 hectares, Joe Horan owns 300 hectares).
• The farmer generally **resides on the farm**.
• Grows major commercial crops (e.g., corn, soyabean, wheat, cotton, sugarbeet).
• Uses **scientific methods**, including soil and water resource assessment for specific crops.
• Implements measures for **pest control**.
• Utilises **soil testing laboratories** to check nutrient levels and plan scientific fertiliser programs.
• Employs **advanced technology** like computers linked to satellites for precise field mapping and management.
• Uses chemicals (fertilisers, pesticides) strategically based on data.
• Relies heavily on **mechanised equipment** for almost all operations (tractors, seed drills, levellers, combined harvesters, threshers).
• Stores grains in **automated storage facilities** or dispatches directly to market agencies.
• The farmer operates much like a **businessman**, focusing on large-scale commercial production and market efficiency, distinct from a traditional peasant farmer.

Fig. 3.16 shows a Farm in the USA, likely depicting large-scale fields and modern machinery, characteristic of highly commercialised and mechanised agriculture in developed countries.

Fig. 3.17 shows the Spray of Pesticides, likely using mechanised equipment on a large field, a common practice in commercial farming in countries like the USA for pest control, representing the technological inputs in modern agriculture.

Fig. 3.18 shows Mechanised Harvesting in the USA, depicting a large combine harvester. This image illustrates the high level of technology and mechanisation used in developed countries for efficient, large-scale harvesting, significantly reducing labour requirements and increasing output compared to manual methods.

This comparison highlights the significant differences in scale, technology, practices, and economic orientation between agriculture in developing and developed countries, reflecting varying levels of agricultural development.